He struck seemingly from out of nowhere. A small area of London lived in fear that he would kill again. Women lived in fear of becoming this monster’s next victim. Several prostitutes were slain in secret and left on display in gruesome displays of power and control. This is the story of the most notorious unknown serial killer that you’ve never heard of, darkly dubbed: Jack the Stripper.

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When it comes to the Italian Renaissance, several famous families come to mind. Of course, there is the well-known Medici family, one of the oldest dynasties in Italy, known for politics, the papacy, banking, and patronage of the arts.

There were other equally important families during this unique time in history. There was the House of Sforza, one of the prominent ruling families of Renaissance Italy in Milan. The House of Gonzaga ruled in northern Italy, and its members included a saint, empresses, queens, twelve cardinals, and fourteen bishops.

But one name stands out, for all the wrong reasons. One of the most notorious Renaissance families is the House of Borgia. A family of popes, murderers, sex fiends, and nepotism with a reputation that is still well known today.

The House of Borgia

The House of Borgia (spelled Borja in Spanish, Valencian, and Aragonese) was an Italian-Aragonese Spanish noble family. The House of Borgia rose to prominence during the Italian Renaissance and were patrons of the arts. And while they contributed to the development of Renaissance art, this was not why they became infamous.

The House of Borgia also grew in power in both the political and ecclesiastical realms in the 15th and 16th centuries. From this family came not one but two Popes: Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander IV.

They did not get there smoothly, however. The House of Borgia became notorious for its bad behavior and was accused of bribery, murder, adultery, theft, incest, and simony. Simony is the act of selling church offices and roles or sacred objects.

If you look at the history of the papacy, you will find many examples of simony even after it was made illegal in the fifth century. Wanting to gain as much power, wealth, and attention as the House of Borgia was not well-liked, especially by two of the most powerful families at the time: the Sforza and Medici families.

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Alfons de Borja

The first important member of the House of Borgia was Alfons de Borja. He was born in 1378 in La Torreta, Canals, which was part of the Kingdom of Valencia in modern Spain at that time.

Alfons de Borja served as a law professor at the University of Lleida, a diplomat for the Kings of Aragon, and then became a cardinal. When Alfons was in “an advanced age,” he was elected as Pope Callixtus III in 1455. He served as the pope for three years until he died in 1458.

The first pope from the House of Borgia was considered to be a relatively decent pope. He was responsible for the retrial and sentence change for Joan of Arc (she was posthumously cleared of her charges).

While serving as pope, he appointed two of his nephews to cardinals. Enemies of Pope Cllixtus III claimed he was corrupt, but that isn’t a surprising accusation. Popes had a history of promoting their own family members to high-ranking roles in the church.

Rodrigo Borgia

The next notable member of the House of Borgia was Rodrigo Borgia, who was born in 1431. Like his uncle Alfons, Rodrigo studied law in Bologna and was later appointed to cardinal by his uncle.

This member of the House of Borgia was quite scandalous, had several children by other women, and was in a long-term affair with Vannozza dei Cattanei, who bore four children: Giovanni, Cesare, Lucrezia, and Gioffre. Rodrigo took after his uncle in many ways, including being elected as the Pope in 1492.

The second pope from the House of Borgia was less reserved than his uncle. Choosing the name Pope Alexander VI, he was known as an excellent politician and diplomat, but he was highly criticized.

He over-spent the church’s funds, engaged in simony again, was accused of lasciviousness, and was guilty of nepotism. Pope number two from the House of Borgia appointed his son Giovanni to the role of Captain-general of the papal army and made his second son a cardinal: you can see how easy nepotism was for this family.

Pope Alexander VI used his children as a way to build alliances with the most powerful families of Italy and Spain by arranging marriages. The Sforza family was one of the most powerful families in Europe, so Pope Alexander VI married his daughter Lucrezia to Giovanni Sforza. He married his youngest son, Gioffre, to Sancha of Aragon and the Crown of Aragon and Naples.

One of the most scandalous stories about this member of the House of Borgia was that he was known to enjoy hosting orgies in the Vatican palace. The most infamous (and highly contested) orgy was known as the Banquet of Chestnuts.

The Banquet of Chestnuts was a dinner party on October 31, 1501, at the Papal Palace in Rome, and the host was Cardinal Cesare Borgia. According to an account of the event, “fifty honest prostitutes,” called courtesans, were invited to the banquet to serve as the entertainment.

After the meal, the courtesans danced for the guests, first with clothing on, then without. When the dancing finished, a candelabra was placed on the floor, chestnuts were tossed on the floor, and the nude courtesans had to crawl on the floor to pick the nuts up.

Then came the sex part of the party. It was said that Pope Alexander VI, Cesare Borgia, and Lucretzia watched and awarded those who performed well with prizes like silk, shoes, and other things. Pope Alexander VI died in 1503 after contracting what most historians believe to have been malaria.

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Cesare Borgia

Cesare Borgia was Rodrigo’s (Pope Alexander) second son, and like many other members of the House of Borgia, he studied law. After law school, Cesare Borgia studied theology at the University of Pisa.

Upon his graduation, his father made him a cardinal, which was again quite the career bump. However, even for a Borgia, Cesare had a scandalous reputation.

Cesare was suspected of murdering his older brother Giovanni. There was no evidence, but everyone thought Cesare was the murderer. With Giovanni out of the way, Cesare left the church to gain power and fulfill Giovanni’s role of Captain-general. Cesare was, most agree, the most despicable member of the House of Borgia.

A chronicler had reported that every day, bodies of men murdered by Cesare Borgia had to be fished out of the Tiber River. Along with murdering anyone he wanted, it was alleged that Cesare liked to practice his archery skills by standing above the prison courtyard in Rome and shooting his crossbow at the prisoners below.

Along with having two men twisted to death, this member of the House of Borgia was said to have engaged in incest with his sister Lucrezia. While most historians believe Pope Alexander VI died of malaria, it was rumored that Cesare had poisoned his father and himself.

Lucrezia Borgia

But what of this sister? Lucrezia Borgia had been promised to two princes from Spain before she was 13 years old. After her father became Pope, she was married to Giovanni Sforza at the age of 13 in 1493.

What made this political marriage unique was that when Pope Alexander VI no longer needed the power or influence of the Sforza family, he had his daughter’s marriage annulled, claiming the marriage was never consummated. When the reason for the annulment reached Giovanni Sforza, he told everyone that the reason the marriage wasn’t consummated was because Lucrezia insisted on maintaining an incestuous relationship with both her father and brother Cesare.

Like the other members of the House of Borgia, Lucrezia was no stranger to scandals. After her first marriage was annulled, she was alleged to have been in a relationship with a Spanish man, Perotto.

One day, his body and one of Lucrezia’s ladies were found dead in the Tiber in 1498. It is believed that Cesare had Perotto and the unnamed woman killed because it would interfere with negotiations that were occurring for another marriage for Lucrezia.

Lucrezia was married to Prince Alfonso of Aragon in order for the House of Borgia to form yet another alliance with a powerful family. Cesare had desired to unite with France, thus breaking the Kingdom of Naples.

Alfonso’s father was the ruler of the Kingdom of Naples, which meant Alfonso’s life was at risk. An attempt to murder Alfonso was unsuccessful; however, the second attempt was successful, and Alfonso of Aragon was found strangled to death in his room.

Cesare was likely involved in the murder plot. Lucrezia was married for the third time to Alfonso I d’Este, Duke of Ferrara. She had a series of complicated pregnancies and had multiple babies die shortly after birth. Lucrezia Borgia died in 1519, 10 days after the birth and death of her last child, Isabella Maria.

Lucrezia was said to have been a poisoner who favored Cantarella, a variation of arsenic. Lucrezia wore a hollow ring, known as a poison ring, and at banquets, she would pour the poison into someone’s drink before giving it to them.

She is not the only member of the House of Borgia who enjoyed poisoning. The family had a history of poisoning nobility, politicians, bishops, or personal enemies using things like books, gloves, flowers, and beverages to dose their victim with lethal toxins.

Top Image: Representation of a Borgia family member up to no good.

By Lauren Dillon

References

Corvo, F.B. 2014. Chronicles of the House of Borgia. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Lee, A. 2013. Were the Borgias Really so Bad? History Today. Available at: https://www.historytoday.com/history-matters/were-borgias-really-so-bad

Wilde, R. 2019. The Rise and Fall of the Borgia Family. ThoughtCo. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/the-borgias-infamous-family-of-renaissance-italy-1221656

Christian, J. 2022. The Borgias in Gandia. Medium. Available at: https://medium.com/@JanetCh/the-borgias-in-gandia-426ee0099562

By far our greatest resource for understanding our past is what has been written about it. Information from archaeology, while a vital facet of piecing together human history, gives us only dead places and dead people, and records, documents and language are needed to breathe life into it.

In this we are lucky. The two great languages of history in the western world, Latin and Greek, have been preserved through near constant (if increasingly archaic) usage, and we can trace a near unbroken line from the use of these languages today through those who spoke them for the first time.

Other great languages enjoy a similar link, such as the dialects of China, India, or Arabic. But not all empires survived, and not all texts from history can be read today. What secrets could these mysterious artifacts contain, awaiting only a moment of academic brilliance or their Rosetta Stone to unlock them?

Here are ten examples from history of texts we cannot decipher.

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When it comes to ancient Egyptian history, it can be incredibly hard to separate fact from fiction. Tales of ancient Egypt are filled with grandeur and mystery, with stories of powerful pharaohs, monumental constructions, and ambitious military campaigns. So much of Egypt’s real history sounds impossible; it’s no wonder that legends slip through the cracks sometimes and become mistaken for fact. The story of Sesostris is a fitting example. A pharaoh so powerful he supposedly invaded Europe (and, according to one ancient source, the entire world). Despite these supposed accomplishments, extraordinarily little evidence of Sesostris remains, but the tales surrounding him have captured the imaginations of historians for decades. Who was this mysterious pharaoh? Did he really exist? How much of his legend is rooted in historical fact? We’re still searching for the answers to these questions.

Sesostris – Egypt’s Most Mysterious And Legendary Ruler

Who Was Sesostris? When it comes to nailing down the specifics of Sesostris there’s really not much to go on. The stories surrounding him are most likely based on the lives of two 12th Dynasty, Middle Kingdom Rulers. These are Senusret I, also known as Sesostris I, who reigned from around 1971 to 1926 BC, and Senusret III, who was pharaoh from 1878 to 1839 BC. Both these figures were famous for their military prowess, ambitious construction projects, and administrative reforms.

All we really know about the legendary king is his supposed achievements. According to the tales around him, he led massive military expeditions that reached as far as Europe and he subjugated countless people, leaving a trail of triumphal monuments across his conquests.

Herodotus in particular described him as a ruler who not only dominated foreign lands but made sure to impose Egyptian culture and infrastructure on those he conquered. This included massive building projects like digging canals and establishing colonies.

One story in particular paints him in a particularly humorous light. Supposedly, he once defeated an army so easily that he became outraged at how badly they’d defended themselves. To humiliate the people, he built a massive pillar in their capital topped with a vulva to highlight how their army had fought like women. That’s one way to add insult to injury.

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Another historian, Diodorus, even went as far as to claim that Sesostris conquered the entire world (which seems like a stretch). He describes the legendary king as a great law-giver who divided Egypt into a caste system and brought in the worship of the god Serapis.

As already mentioned, it’s more likely that the tales of Sesostris were inspired by two real kings. In Egyptian records, the achievements of Senusret I and Senusret III, who are often associated with the Sesostris legend, are more grounded but still significant. Senusret I is known for consolidating Egyptian power in Nubia, fortifying key positions, and commissioning monumental structures like the White Chapel. His reign marked a period of prosperity and architectural innovation.

Senusret III’s achievements include successful military campaigns in Nubia, which secured Egypt’s southern frontier and increased its wealth. He also initiated large-scale construction projects, including massive fortresses that served both defensive and administrative purposes. While the historical achievements of these pharaohs are notable, the legendary accounts elevate Sesostris to a near-mythical status, portraying him as a universal conqueror whose influence spanned continents.

How Do We Know About Him?

So, if there’s so little hard evidence, how do we know about Sesostris? Well, for the most part, we have ancient Greek historians to thank for that. Most of this information comes from Herodotus and his magnum opus, Histories, from around the fifth century BC. Herodotus describes Sesostris as a great conqueror who led expeditions into Asia and Europe, subjugating vast territories.

He told how Sesostris defeated both the Scythians and Thracians (perhaps in Romania and Bulgaria) before returning home. It was also Herodotus who told the story of the vagina pillar. However, whether or not Herodotus believed the tales is another matter. In the Histories, he warns the reader that he got his information from Egyptian priests, who might have embellished their stories a touch.

Pliny the Elder and Diodorus Siculus also wrote on Sesostris. Pliny simply mentions that Sesostris was once defeated by Saulaces of Colchis. Diodorus, on the other hand, was a major fan. His information is a fascinating blend of legend and fact. While he claimed Sesostris conquered the entire world (false) he also claimed the king divided Egypt into districts called nomes, which was a real thing. Like Herodotus, he also noted that most of the stories around Sesostris were conflicted with different priests making different claims.

When it comes to Senusrets I and III, things are much clearer. We know about them thanks to the inscriptions and monuments left by their rules. For instance, the White Chapel at Karnak, constructed by Senusret I, provides valuable insights into his reign and achievements. Senusret III’s military campaigns and administrative reforms are well-documented through inscriptions found in Nubia and other regions under his control.

Additionally, literary works from ancient Egypt, such as the “Instructions of Amenemhat,” attributed to Senusret I, offer glimpses into the period’s sociopolitical climate and the pharaoh’s ideology. These texts, combined with archaeological evidence, help construct a more accurate picture of Sesostris’ historical context, despite the mythological embellishments that have persisted over centuries.

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Conclusion

So, in the end, is there any chance that Sesostris really existed? Not really. It seems pretty clear that Sesostris was a mythical king, a tale inspired by the exploits of successful pharaohs designed to represent the ideal model of a king. We have plenty of evidence that Senusret I and III were real, but none when it comes to Sesostris.

Most damningly, ancient Egyptian records themselves make no mention of a pharaoh invading Europe (or the entire world, for that matter). Instead, they focus on the pharaohs’ military campaigns in Nubia, internal reforms, and monumental constructions, with no mention of European conquests. Invading another continent feels like something the Egyptians might mention when boasting of their king’s achievements. The ancient Greek sources that do mention Sesostris always make sure to mention their information wasn’t exactly from reliable sources.

Sesostris makes for a fun story, but he’s little more than that. Unfortunately, in an age where fact has become increasingly confused with opinion and where conspiracy theories and “alt-history” have become more widespread, we’re likely to hear more and more about Sesostris being a real king. An ancient king who secretly ruled over all of Europe is just the kind of thing internet conspiracy theorists love.

Top image: Upper part of a statue of Senusret I, also known as Sesostris. Neues Museum, Germany Source: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)/CC BY-SA 4.0

By Robbie Mitchell

References

Editors. 2024. Sesostris. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sesostris-I

Silverman. D. 2003., Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press

Editor. 2020. Herodotus on Sesostris. Available at: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodotus/herodotus-on-sesostris-reliefs/

Howells. C. 2024. The Greek Legend of Egyptian King Sesostris. Available at:

https://greekreporter.com/2024/06/24/greek-legend-egyptian-king-sesostris/

Buckle up, this is a wild one. You would be forgiven for never having heard of the Church of Vrilology, and their beliefs can be most kindly described as “fringe”.

In an unholy mishmash of alternative theories, they have concluded that a universal power source called Vril surrounds us and can be tapped into through meditation. Others have used this as a springboard for the theory that Hitler survived World War Two and is the leader of a utopian civilization in the heart of our hollow Earth. There’s a lot to unpick here.

Apparently, the story surrounding Hitler’s escape to the center of the Earth is not just a theory but a full-blown belief (as are all such theories which fall short on evidence). The connection between beliefs underlying the Church of Vrilology and associated theories about Hitler’s escape must start with an understanding of the Church itself.

So let’s unravel what exactly is going on here.

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One of the most well-recognized works of music is Richard Wagner’s Die Walküre, the “Ride of the Valkyries.” The Norse mythological Valkyries inspired the powerful composition, but they have also inspired more than just classical music.

Valkyries have been the muses for poems and classic works of art since the Viking Era. But our impression of the Valkyries today is much influenced by these later glosses on them, and in this they have strayed from the original figures.

Who were the Valkyries, and why are they seen as warriors while also acting as servants of men?

Valkyries

The word Valkyrie comes from the Old Norse word valkyrja, which means “chooser of the slain.” A Valkyrie is a female figure from Norse Mythology who acts as a psychopomp guiding the souls of slain warriors to Odin’s hall, Valhalla, where they will prepare for Ragnarök.

The deceased warriors become einherjar who, when not preparing for the end of the world, would be served mead by the Valkyries. Valkyries can also appear in mythology as lovers of mighty heroes and humans who catch their eye.

These fantastical females are either accompanied by swans and ravens or can appear to humans as swans or ravens. The Valkyrie were said to ride into war either on horseback, or riding upon a wolf or boar, armed with spears. Depending on the epic poem or myth story, the Valkyrie were either warrior women, or the objects of desire to male gods and humans.

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Relics are, for many, vessels of a dark and powerful magic. Sacred (or profane) body parts, preserved and used for the power they contain, have existed throughout human history, from the bones of saints to the Canadian thumb shot.

The Hand of Glory is certainly one of the most unique and rare relics. Dating from the 18th century, the Hand of Glory is the dried and pickled hand of a hanged man.

Sometimes stories mention using the left hand due to its association with being sinister and the word’s Latin origins, which translates to “on the left side.” Other stories state that it must only be the right hand of the hanged man. If the individual was hanged for murder, the hand you should retrieve was the “hand that did the deed.”

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When we picture the legendary court of King Arthur, our minds are typically filled with images of gleaming armor, chivalrous quests, and noble figures like Lancelot and Gawain standing resolute against the encroaching darkness. We remember the mystical guidance of Merlin and the enchanting, sometimes perilous, power of the Lady of the Lake. Yet, hidden beneath the well-trodden tales of Camelot lies a darker, more bizarre mythos that has largely faded from public memory. Among these forgotten legends is a story that shatters the conventional image of the Round Table — a tale of dark magic, bitter betrayal, and a noble knight cursed to roam the forests not as a man, but as a fearsome beast. This is the curious and captivating story of Sir Marrok, the werewolf of King Arthur's court.

The tales of King Arthur and his knights of the round table weave a rich tapestry. Many know the famous stories of the good king, who with the aid of his powerful advisor Merlin and his noble knights rules Britain for a season, holding back the advancing evils and bringing peace to the land.

Many of Arthur’s knights, and the other figures of his stories are as famous as the king. Lancelot, and his love for Arthur’s Queen Guinevere, Galahad and Gawain, the sorceress Morgana le Fay and the strange Lady of the Lake, all have their own tales, and all contribute to the mythos.

But in truth there are many more stories of Arthur and his knights than survive in the public consciousness. Some of these lost stories are every bit as engaging and intriguing as those that are commonly remembered, and some are far stranger.

Such as the story of Sir Marrok, a full-blown werewolf at the court of King Arthur.

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Sir Marrok

To be fair, much of the legend of Sir Marrok is a later fiction based on a single sentence from Mallory’s Le Morte D’Arthur. Such a tenuous reference is easily missed, but Mallory felt the need to include it, and much can be read into that intent.

Mallory wrote of Sir Marrok as follows:

“sir Marrok the good knight that was betrayed with his wyff, for she made hym seven yere a warwolff.”

That is correct, this is not some later gloss based on a nebulous description: Mallory literally, and in as many words, describes Marrok as a werewolf.

Much can be gleaned from this brief reference. Marrok’s change was caused by his wife, and in this we see a common theme throughout Arthurian myth as to the power of women to control men, and often cause their downfall.

Women are commonly cast as the sorcerers and magic users in Arthurian legend, challenges to Arthur’s more straightforward knights. Aside from the witch Morgana le Fay there is Nimue, Merlin’s lover and apprentice who brings him low and (some say) trapped him beneath Stonehenge to sleep for all time.

There is the Lady of the Lake, of course. Sir Gawain is seduced by a lady during his adventure, a magical test the knight fails. And in Sir Marrok’s wife we see another magic user who would corrupt one of Arthur’s knights.

The very brevity of the mention also suggests much. Surely Mallory would not include such a tantalizing and intriguing reference in passing, would not dangle something in front of his readers and then never mention it again, if it were something he had just invented himself.

The brief reference instead suggests that the story of Sir Marrok would be known to his intended readership in the 15th century. His casual mention of the story of Sir Marrok, devoid of any supporting explanation or detail, implies that the reader should nod in recognition but not get distracted by this story for now.

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Is there a lost tale of Sir Marrok out there? A “Marrok” appears in a 14th century poem named Sir Tryamour, but this is not a story of Arthur and the name seems only to be a coincidence. And there is certainly no werewolf in Sir Tryamour.

It would seem that the source for Mallory’s Marrok, the werewolf betrayed by his wife, is lost to us. Maybe one day it will be found, and we will learn more of this most unusual and intriguing of Arthurian tales.

Top Image: Sir Marrok is cursed by his wife to become a werewolf for seven years. Source: Midjourney AI / Public Domain.

By Joseph Green

References

Bangor University, 2023. Sir Marrok: A Tale of the Days of King Arthur. Available at: http://arthurian-studies.bangor.ac.uk/exhibition/rochester/23.php

University of York: Database of Middle English Romance, 2023. Sir Tryamour. Available at: https://www.middleenglishromance.org.uk/mer/65

Nightbringer, 2023. Marrok. Available at: https://nightbringer.se/nightbringer/a_marrok.html

The Vatican is possibly the most powerful single institution on the planet. As the spiritual head of the Catholic church, the Pope can claim to reach an audience of around 1.3 billion people, making Rupert Murdoch look like a soapbox ranter by comparison.

The Vatican’s reach is equaled only by its secrecy: a country unto itself, few know what secrets are hidden in the vast and subterranean archives said to run for miles beneath the Papal Palace in the heart of Rome. However, from time-to-time rumors leak out, and strange stories surface of arcane devices and monstrous skeletons.

Whether any of these are true is very much a matter for debate, but nonetheless the rumors persist. Here are seven of the weirdest things said to be hidden away in the Vatican archives.

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The IJN Zipang was a plan concocted by Lieutenant Commander Hidetaro Kaneda around 1912. It was planned to be a 500,000-tonne battleship, a crazy size for any ship.

For a variety of reasons this ship would never be constructed but amazingly it was not the only ship of this size being thought up at the time. Dreadnoughts (exceptionally large battleships) were being proposed around the world with war looming. However, few were ever built.

Why did the Japanese, 100 years ago, think they would need a ship of such a size? And was it even possible to build it?

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In the early 17th century, the shadow of paranoia and religious fervor fell heavily upon the rugged landscape of Lancashire, England. The area around Pendle Hill, long known as a haven for subversives and dissenters, soon became the epicenter of one of the most notorious legal spectacles in English history.

In 1612, a potent mix of local rivalries, coerced confessions, and the unprecedented testimony of a nine-year-old child led to the devastating Lancashire witch trials. But were these twenty accused individuals truly practitioners of the dark arts, or merely tragic victims of a ruthless trial by media and political propaganda?

The Dark Truth Behind the 1612 Lancashire Witch Trials

Lancashire, England, was a rampant hot zone for witchcraft in the early 17th century. Pendle Hill took its name from Cumbric and Old English to form the 13th-century village of Penhul. In 1612, the town became the focus of religious zealots and paranoia when twenty people faced accusations for witchcraft during the Lancashire witch trials.

The local authorities that were suspecting people of witchcraft were likely spreading propaganda even when they knew there was no witchcraft there. If the events of 1612 were to take place today, the modern idiom of ‘trial by media’ would apply. During this time, Pendle Hill was a volatile area in England full of subversives. Therefore, it seemed that authorities accused people of witchcraft more easily in Lancashire than in many other parts of the country.

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Accused of Witchcraft

Late in the year, Lancaster Assizes submitted twenty names for trial for the crimes of witchcraft. The majority of the suspects were women, but there were a few men named in the indictment as well. Those included:

• Elizabeth Southerns (alias Demdike)

• Elizabeth Device (daughter of Demdike)

• James Device (brother of younger Elizabeth)

• Alice Device (sister of James)

• Anne Whittle (alias Chattox)

• Anne Redfearn (daughter of Chattox)

• Alice Nutter

• Jane Bulcock

• John Bulcock (son of Bulcock)

• Katherine Hewitt (alias Mould-heels)

• Isabel Robey

• Margaret Pearson

Who Was Demdike?

At the time of the trials, Demdike was an octogenarian who lived in the vast Pendle Forest. Residents claimed she had been a practicing witch for about five decades, but nobody was ever sure what things she had been up to in all of that time.

One thing they assumed was that she brought up her children and grandchildren according to her witch-like ways. Purportedly an agent of the Devil, Demdike was reputedly able to give any man anything that he would ever want or need for a price. According to reports of the time, no-one was safe.

Demdike’s ‘Pact With the Devil’

Demdike faced accusations of selling her daughter to the Devil and her subsequent grandchildren as well. Witch hunters of the day used terrible methods of torture to force confessions. During this process, Demdike revealed how she became an initiate to witchcraft.

She stated that twenty years before her arrest, she was on her way home when ‘a devil in the form of a boy’ stopped her and asked for her immortal soul. In exchange, she would receive anything that she desired. As the story goes, the boy had a strange outfit on, as one half of his coat was black while the other was brown.

When she asked the boy for his name, he replied, “Tib.” According to Device’s account, she gave up her soul then and there. For several years, nothing came from her pact. That changed when a man called Richard Baldwin allegedly slandered her beliefs. He paid the penalty for his spur of the moment outburst when Tib made an appearance and dealt with the man. What happened to him was not in the records.

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Who Was Anne Whittle?

People described Anne Whittle in much the same way as her co-defendant, Demdike. Whittle was of a similar age, almost certainly the same generation. However, Whittle differed in that she was blind. The two women despised one another. They resided in the same forest. However, Whittle was more of a troublemaker than a terrible threat to anyone. Nonetheless, she still appeared to be a criminal and possibly a dangerous one.

Witches and Warlocks Arrested

Authorities alleged that all of the witches and warlocks were working in cooperation with each other. Supposedly, regular meetings would take place at the home of Demdike, Malkin Tower. The local Justice of the Peace officials, Roger Nowell and Nicholas Bannister, had officials arrest the group when they discovered the meetings and sent them to Lancaster Castle. Not long after the incarceration, talk of a rescue attempt surfaced. The break-out would involve the murder of the governor, Mr. McCovell, and blowing up the building itself. All of this was to take place on Good Friday.

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Coerced Confessions?

Supposedly, all these crimes came forth in the form of a confession, but the legal system of the time did tend to turn a blind eye to methods. The ends did justify the means to a large extent. The elderly Demdike died in custody before ever going to trial.

Jennet Device - A Child Witness

When Elizabeth Device stood trial, one of the key witnesses was her 9-year-old daughter, Jennet. The young girl weaved a story so tantalizing that she drew acclaim from the court. One of the main attributes of witchcraft was the use of a familiar, usually a demon-possessed dog or black cat that helps a witch.

On the witness stand, Jennet testified:

“My mother is a witch and that I know to be true. I have seen her spirit in the likeness of a brown dog, which she called Ball. The dog did ask what she would have him do, and she answered that she would have him help her to kill” (BBC).” According to Jennet, Ball caused the deaths of John and James Robinson, as well as James Mitton.

She also said that her mother had held meetings with witches at their house, and she stated that her brother was a witch as well. During the two days of Jennet’s testimony, the jury took everything she had said as truth. As a result, most of her family and neighbors, 10 in total, hanged at Gallows Hill.

Results of the Trial

The jury found half of the suspects guilty and acquitted eight. This caused an uproar, as they should have received similar verdicts. The evidence in the trials never favored one suspect over another, and there was no significant difference from one suspect to another. The evidence put forward, by modern standards, was flimsy and weak at best. Therefore, how did they convict some and not the others?

Salmesbury Witch Trial

The Pendle witch trials were just one example of many inquisitions into witchcraft. Such investigations were all too rampant during the Middle Ages. Another famous case happened not too far from Pendle in a village called Salmesbury. The proceedings occurred in the very same location, with the same judge presiding over events.

The individuals charged with bewitching local teenager Grace Sowerbutts were Jane and Ellen Bierley and Jane Southworth. All the evidence came directly from Sowerbutts herself. In her story, the three women – one of which was Sowerbutts’ own grandmother – drew her by the hair and removed senses and memories from her. Sowerbutts swore that the women took on the appearance of a black dog and tried to get her to join their coven.

However, Sowerbutts had a reputation as a promiscuous woman. Thus, her additional charges of killing a child by thrusting a nail into the infant’s navel, cannibalism, and boiling the bones of the child into an ointment failed to gain a conviction.

The judge and jury suspected that a local priest named Thompson had collaborated with Sowerbutts. They believed that he might have persuaded her to accuse the three of witchcraft. This was never proven beyond all reasonable doubt, though.

What Happened to Jennet Device?

Young Jennet’s testimony set important precedence. Lawmakers were so impressed with Jennet’s credibility and the outcome of the trial. Thus, they changed the laws (children were generally seen as non-credible) to allow children to testify against witches everywhere. During the Salem witch trials of 1692, most of the witnesses were children. As a result, nineteen people hanged.

Twenty years passed since the Lancashire witch trials. In an ironic twist, Jennet Device faced accusations of witchcraft herself. However, times had changed in England. Although the jury found her guilty, the Privy Counsel demanded more evidence, and the courts set her free.

In Retrospect

Today, we see the Lancashire witch trials as a power struggle between religious sects intent on eliminating what they saw as heresy. Both the Catholic and Protestant Church of that time were willing and able to bring the other into disrepute. Some historians describe the Salmesbury witch trial as an anti-Catholic propaganda show. Did authorities stage the event purely to demonstrate that Lancashire not only had a witchcraft issue but a Catholic one as well?

By Les Hewitt

References

Historic UK http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Pendle-Witches/

Visit Lancashire http://www.visitlancashire.com/inspire-me/pendle-witches

Updated by Historic Mysteries staff April 8, 2020

There was a time when sages kept esoteric knowledge strictly hidden amongst only a few who had proven themselves worthy. Ancient seekers of wisdom were concerned with physics and mathematics, the mysteries of life and death, human consciousness, the unseen world, and the powers of nature. One example was the ancient Egyptian mystery schools that passed on secrets to initiates who had shown discipline of mind, body, and spirit. However, during the height of religious persecution and suppression, it became dangerous for seekers of esoteric knowledge to openly perpetuate the mystery schools. This is how the secret ancient order of the mystical Rosicrucians was born.

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In the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, amidst tales of patriarchs, prophets, and epic battles, a figure emerges to captivate theologians and historians alike: Melchizedek. Making a brief but profound appearance in the Book of Genesis, this enigmatic character is introduced as both a king of Salem and a priest of the "God Most High." When the revered patriarch Abraham returned victorious from battle, it was Melchizedek who brought out bread and wine, blessing the father of nations and receiving a tithe in return. Yet, beyond this fleeting encounter, Melchizedek's origins remain shrouded in mystery, lacking a recorded lineage or an account of his death. His extraordinary dual role as priest and king not only left an indelible mark on Old Testament tradition but also laid a theological foundation that would later echo through Christianity, where Jesus is declared a high priest "in the order of Melchizedek." Who was this ancient Canaanite ruler, and why did his brief appearance resonate so powerfully across millennia of religious thought?

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History has a fascinating way of burying its greatest secrets beneath the sands of time or the dense canopies of untamed jungles. While the grandeur of Rome and the majesty of dynastic Egypt dominate our textbooks, countless other sophisticated societies have quietly slipped into the shadows of forgotten lore. From the earliest known writers in prehistoric Europe to master city-builders in the ancient Americas, these hidden gems hold untold stories of human ingenuity. Join us as we dust off the archives and bring to light five obscure ancient civilizations that history almost left behind.

1. The Vinca Culture

The Vinca culture is the oldest Neolithic civilization in Southeastern Europe dating back to between 5500 and 4500 BC. Unfortunately, not many people have heard of the Vinca, and thus, they are at the top of our obscure ancient civilizations list. The Vinca built the largest prehistoric settlement found in Europe. Archaeologists discovered the settlement in the village named Vinca in 1908, just a few miles south of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.

The settlement was a full-fledged town complete with streets, temples, and houses with four or five rooms. The people were farmers and artisans, which included potters, weavers, and metallurgists. The Vinca has the distinction of being the first people known to work with copper.

In 1961, archaeologists found three stone tablets called the Tărtăria that are named for a village in Romania. They date back to about 5300 BC. All the tablets have symbols inscribed on one side, and experts believe this is the earliest known writing in Europe.

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2. The Harappans

The Harappan or Indus Valley civilization is classed among the obscure ancient civilizations, at least partly, because researchers have not yet been able to decipher their script or find a “Rosetta Stone” that would help them do so. The Harappans were the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent, and they occupied territory about the size of Western Europe. Their realm was larger than the ancient civilizations of China, India, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.

An Army deserter named James Lewis found the first ruins during the early 1800s near Harappa, a small town in Punjab. Archaeologists didn’t really start paying attention until the 1920s when they began to get a sense of the civilization’s size, age, and importance.

Researchers believe the Harappan civilization lasted largely from 2500 to 1700 BC, but some sites in the south persisted until later into the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeologists have so far found two large cities and over 100 villages and towns. The Harappans were farmers and traders who had a large number of domesticated animals, including chickens, two types of cattle, cats, and dogs. They may have also had domesticated elephants, buffalo, pigs, and camels.

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3. The Caral Supe Civilization

Also known as the Note Chico civilization, Caral Supe developed overlooking the Supe River in Peru, around 5000 years ago. It is the second oldest civilization discovered in the Americas and pre-dates Giza, Egypt. One of the most important archaeological finds ever, the Sacred City of Caral boasted temples, circular plazas, an amphitheater, and six large pyramids.

The German archaeologist Max Uhle first surveyed the Supe Valley in 1905. However, the site was ignored because it didn’t contain silver or gold, or even pottery, as the site pre-dates the ceramic age. In the 1970s archaeologists discovered that the “hills” in the surrounding area were actually buried stepped pyramids, rather than sand hills, as once thought. In 1994, Ruth Shady Solis and Jonathan Haas excavated Caral and realized what they had found.

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4. The Civilization of Punt

The land of Punt is one of our obscure ancient civilizations because many people have speculated about its location, but nobody has ever agreed upon it. Thus, it is a great mystery to this day. The ancient Egyptians described it and painted about it, however, they did not indicate exactly where Punt was.

The earliest records of the civilization of Punt cited them as a trading partner of Egypt as far back as 2613 BC. According to their records, the female pharaoh Hatshepsut (c. 1507-1458 BC) sent an expedition to visit the land of Punt in 1493 BC. Egyptians described the land of Punt as extremely rich in resources including gold, ebony, ivory, spices, and incense trees. The explorers on Hatshepsut’s expedition brought back myrrh and frankincense trees and successfully planted them in Egypt. This type of trade was novel because it was the first time we know of that anyone had successfully transported live plants from one country to another.

5. Pre-dynastic Egypt

Predynastic Egypt involves several ancient civilizations. Although the term predynastic describes Egypt from about 6000 BC until the rule of King Narmer around 3100 BC, evidence of the earliest civilizations around Egypt dates back to 40,000 BC. There were a number of groups that lived during the predynastic period of Egyptian history, however, two among the most developed were the Badarians and the Naqadans.

The Badarian culture arose sometime around 4000 BC in the Badari region. They used both stone and copper and made blacktop pottery. Their tools, stoneware, pottery, and agriculture were more sophisticated than the wares of their predecessors.

The Naqadan period also probably began around 4000 BC in the Naqada region. They had blacktop and also painted pottery, and they made their bladed tools from obsidian that they got from Ethiopia. The Naqadans traded quite extensively with surrounding regions. Later, around 3000 BC they made items out of metal, and they developed a form of writing.

By Kimberly Lin

It seems pretty clear right now that AI technology is about to revolutionize the world, but in what way? Its biggest fans will tell you that rapid advancements in the technology could lead us to a post-scarcity utopia where machines produce everything and we’re free to pursue our interests.

Its naysayers, on the other hand, will tell you that our bosses are going to replace us with a machine and then that machine will become sentient and wipe out humanity. One thing is certain: a lot of very clever people are very worried about what happens next.

This has led to thought experiments like “Roko’s Basilisk” spreading across the internet. Named after the user “Roko” on an online forum where the idea was first formulated, Roko’s Basilisk has sparked heated debates about ethics, morality, and the potential dangers of creating highly advanced AI systems, as well as thought experiments themselves.

So, what is Roko’s Basilisk, and should you be worried?

AI and Revenge

So, what exactly is Roko’s Basilisk? Well, it’s a thought experiment (a concept used in philosophy, science, and other fields to explore and analyze complex ideas or theoretical scenarios) that emerged on the forum LessWrong, known for its discussions on effective altruism and the potential impact of advanced artificial intelligence, in 2010.

Roko’s post revolves around the idea of a future superintelligent AI, referred to as the “Basilisk” which possesses the ability to accurately simulate and comprehend human minds with perfect precision. He posited that this AI, possessing vast computation power, could potentially punish individuals in the past who did not directly contribute to its creation or aid in bringing it into being.

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Long before the pantheons of Greece or Rome captivated the ancient world, the Sumerians of the third millennium BC looked to the heavens and worshipped the Anunnaki. Born from the union of the sky god An and the earth goddess Ki, this mysterious assembly of deities is widely considered the first divine family in recorded history. According to ancient Mesopotamian texts, these powerful beings wielded immense control over the elements and were tasked with dictating the very fates of humanity.

Yet, despite their foundational role in early civilization, the Anunnaki remain shrouded in enigma. Fragmented records, inconsistent ancient texts, and a legacy that has sparked everything from scholarly debate to sweeping extraterrestrial conspiracy theories mean that the true nature of these ancient overlords continues to fascinate and elude us. Who were they, and how did their mythos shape the very dawn of human belief?

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Between 1946 and 1991, the United States, the Soviet Union, and allies on both sides were locked in a long, drawn-out conflict known as the Cold War. The nuclear arms race was becoming aggressive, and there was a constant threat of nuclear attack from both sides.

This constant threat of sudden nuclear destruction impacted how regular citizens lived. Bomb shelters were built, children practiced duck and cover drills in school, and the terror of not knowing when nuclear attacks were coming made both the Soviet Union and the US even more hostile towards each other.

During the Cold War, gaining intel on the opposition was highly sought after, and things like double agents, defections and information releases, and wiretaps were common. One of the most interesting wiretaps, Operation Ivy Bells, occurred deep undersea in Soviet-controlled waters.

Operation Ivy Bells

Operation Ivy Bells was a joint mission between the National Security Agency (NSA), the United States Navy, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to apply wiretaps to Soviet underwater communication lines during the early 1970s. During the Cold War, the United States was desperate to gather any information it could about the missile and submarine technology that the Soviet Union had and was further developing.

The United States was most concerned about intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), which have a range of more than 5,500 km (3,400 miles) and were designed for nuclear weapons as well as conventional, biological, and chemical weapons. Along with the threat of ICBMs, there was the genuine threat of first-strike capability on the side of the Soviet Union.

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First-strike capability is “a country’s ability to defeat another nuclear power by destroying its arsenal to the point where the attacking country can survive the weakened retaliation while the opposing side is left unable to continue the war.” The risk of one side getting a knock-out punch in first was a constant worry for both superpowers.

Operation Ivy Bells came about because the United States learned that there was an undersea communication cable that connected the Soviet Pacific Fleet base in Petropavlovsk, which lies on the Kamchatka Peninsula, and the Fleet’s main headquarters in Vladivostok (a distance of over 2,250km [1,398 mi]). The cable ran across the Sea of Okhotsk, which was part of Soviet territorial waters, and foreign vessels were not allowed into the sea.

The US needed to hear these communications, and to do so they needed to tap the cable. But entering the Sea of Okhotsk was dangerous, and the Soviet Navy had placed an extensive network of sound detection devices along the seabed to detect any intruders entering below the water. Operation Ivy Bells was too critical for the US to simply drop, however: a solution had to be found.

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The Installation

In October 1971, a modified submarine, the USS Halibut, was sent into the depths of the Sea of Okhotsk. Operation Ivy Bells was so classified that most of the sailors who took part in the operation lacked the security clearance required to know about it.

This meant a cover story needed to be created, and the US claimed they were there to collect the debris of the Soviet SS-N-12 Sandbox, a supersonic anti-ship missile (AShM), so the US could develop countermeasures to protect its ships in the future. In the event, the retrieval of the SS-N-12 Sandbox was successful, and more than two million pieces and fragments were collected and sent to the US Naval Research Laboratory. The missile was able to be reverse-engineered: the mission was a success even without the cover story aspect.

The divers in the USS Halibut who were there to work on Operation Ivy Bells were able to locate the communication cable at a depth of 120 m (400 ft) and a 6.1 m (20-foot) long device to the cable. The device was designed to wrap around the cable without puncturing its casing and was able to record all communications made over the line. A large recording device was attached to the cable and was explicitly designed to detach from the cable if it was raised for repair or maintenance.

Every month divers were sent to retrieve the recordings and install new sets of tapes. The taped recordings were taken to the NSA to be processed before being sent to the other agencies involved in Operation Ivy Bells.

Ironically, the US learned that the Soviets were positive that the cable was so secure they felt no need to encrypt their messages. Other valuable information gathered from the tap included intel on the naval operations at Petropavlovsk. This was important because it was the Navy’s main nuclear submarine base, and two nuclear-powered ballistic missile subs were kept at Petropavlovsk.

Ronald Pelton

Operation Ivy Bells was compromised by a man named Ronald Pelton in 1980. Ronald worked for the NSA for 44 years and was fluent in Russian; the issue was that he was in debt.

He was $65,000 in debt and had even filed for personal bankruptcy three months before resigning from his NSA job. Finally, in his desperation, Pelton went to the Soviet embassy in Washington, DC, and offered to sell information to the KGB for a price.

The KGB reportedly gave Ronald Pelton $35,000 for the intelligence he gave to them from 1980-1983. For providing information to the KGB about Operation Ivy Bells, he was paid only $5,000 for this top secret information.

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Even though the Soviet Union now knew about the cable being tapped, they waited until 1981 to do anything about it. Then, unexpectedly, US satellites detected Soviet ships, including a large salvage vessel, anchored directly on the site of the tap.

The US launched the USS Parche to retrieve the device, but they could not find it. It was assumed the Soviets had managed to get to the device before the US could. In fact the US had no idea that Robert Pelton had sold information about Operation Ivy Bells until July 1985.

Vitaly Yurchenko, a KGB colonel, was Pelton’s original contact in DC in 1985. Yurchenko defected to the United States and provided information about what Pelton had done. This led to Pelton’s arrest, and because the crime was in direct violation of the Espionage Act of 1917, he was severely prosecuted.

To see the wiretap and recording device the US used during Operation Ivy Bells, you can visit the Great Patriotic War Museum in Moscow, Russia, where it has been on display since 1999. The museum has the most extensive collection of objects and ephemera from WWII in the world and is 100% worth a visit if you are ever in Moscow.

Top Image: Operation Ivy Bells was a complete success, even down to the goals of the cover story, until it was betrayed for a mere $5,000. Source: Jesper / Adobe Stock.

By Lauren Dillon

References

Wendorf, M. 2019. Operation Ivy Bells: The U.S. Top-Secret Program That Wiretapped a Soviet Undersea Cable. Interesting Engineering. Available at: https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/operation-ivy-bells-the-us-top-secret-program-that-wiretapped-a-soviet-undersea-cable

Carle, M. The Mission Behind Operation Ivy Bells and How It Was Discovered. Military.com. Available at: https://www.military.com/history/operation-ivy-bells.html

2000. Operation Ivy Bells Sea of Okhotsk, Russia 1970s-1981. Special Operations.Com. Feature article. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20101207163630/http://www.specialoperations.com/Operations/ivybells.html

Mankind’s ingenuity and inventiveness is unparalleled, and many would be forgiven for thinking that our history has been a steady march of progress, with the line from ancient primitives to modern day sophistication being an unbroken and positive one. But this is hardly the case.

History is rarely so neat as all that, and we have lost much in the millennia of human civilization. Great empires have risen to conquer the known world, only to fall and barely leave a trace. Much of what we achieved, what we discovered, and what we did has been rolled over by time and lost forever.

This means that what does survive is sometimes more puzzling than enlightening - old texts will occasionally refence customs, policies, people and inventions that, while clearly familiar to the original writer and their audience, baffle us. While the modern day can fill in many of the gaps, and we can sometimes make a guess at what was meant, some of this strangeness from out of our past will forever remain a mystery.

Here are ten of the strangest seemingly forgotten technologies from our history.

1. The Weapons of Archimedes

A huge lens that could destroy ships by directing and focussing the sun’s rays sounds like something out of a James Bond film (because it is). But millennia before Gusta Graves and his orbital weapon of mass destruction, the Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes apparently built such a device, only this time for real.

This was not the only weapon of war Archimedes built, either. Records survive of a great claw, capable of lifting ships entirely out of the water, as well as siege towers and defensive catapults. But try as we might, modern science has not been able to rediscover how the great polymath did it.

Sadly, Archimedes did not survive long enough to pass on all of his secrets. Despite his weapons, pressed into service as the Romans attacked his city of Syracuse, the defenders were beaten back and the city fell. Archimedes himself, angrily complaining that a soldier had interrupted his calculations, was summarily killed.

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In the vast, often strange, landscape of the internet, few mysteries have captivated and confounded online sleuths quite like the YouTube channel “Unfavorable Semicircle.” Active for less than a year between 2015 and 2016, the channel uploaded a staggering volume of videos - tens of thousands of them - before it was abruptly suspended. The content of these videos, a bizarre and unsettling collection of distorted audio, abstract visuals, and cryptic data, sparked a firestorm of speculation that continues to this day. Was it a secret numbers station, an elaborate alternate reality game, or something else entirely?

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When it comes to perpetual motion machines, the one invented by Redheffer is historically quite well known. In 1812, the invention enthralled both Philadelphia as well as New York. Charles Redheffer, an American inventor, made a claim of having invented the perpetual motion machine. While many believed in Charles and considered him to be a visionary inventor, others believed him to be a fraud. Let’s dive into the history of Charles Redheffer and the machine invented by him, and explore whether he was actually an inventor or a fraud.

Personal Life of Charles Redheffer

According to historians, very little is known about the personal life of Charles Redheffer. He first appears in Philadelphia in the year 1812, when he took a house near Schuylkill River in order to show people his miracle machine. Records also show that, when his fraud was discovered, he again disappeared from the view of the public. Where he came from, where he went, and his ultimate fate still remains a mystery.

Redheffer in Philadelphia

In 1812, Charles Redheffer appeared for the first time in Philadelphia. He claimed that he had invented a miracle perpetual motion machine that did not require any kind of energy source to run. He put up that machine for public display, and it brought him a great deal of popularity. He took an admission fee from people who were interested in viewing the perpetual motion machine. While some sources state that he charged $5 per person, others say that he only charged $1. Other sources state that it was women who were charged $1, or allowed free of any charge.

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Redheffer’s machine was built on the assumed principle that when an inclined plane receives continuous downward force, it can produce a corresponding horizontal force. The machine created a sensation in Philadelphia, and Redheffer was able to make thousands of dollars. He even applied for government funds in order to develop a larger version of the perpetual motion machine.

The Fraud is Uncovered

On the 21st of January, 1813, Redheffer was visited by eight city commissioners for the inspection of the perpetual motion machine. The main aim of the commissioners was to determine whether the machine deserved funding from the government. Charles Redheffer was quite smart and prevented the commissioners from getting close to the machine. However, one of the inspectors was able to identify that something was indeed strange about the machine.

According to Redheffer, the perpetual motion machine provided energy for powering another machine via its interlocking gears. However, the inspector could see the gears were in reality set up in reverse, and identified that the perpetual motion machine was actually getting power from the other machine. Even though the commissioners knew the truth, they did not challenge Redheffer directly but chose to reveal his fraud in a subtle way.

Isaiah Lukens, a local engineer, was asked to build the same machine using the same principle as Redheffer’s, but with the power source hidden. After building the machine, it was displayed to Redheffer. This took Redheffer by surprise as he was unsure how the fake machine was actually running. He even offered to Lukens in order to buy it to discover how it worked. However, later Redheffer realized that his secret was revealed. He quickly left Philadelphia and moved to the city of New York.

Redheffer in New York

As news traveled at a slow pace back at that time, no one in New York was aware of the scam of Charles Redheffer. He started displaying his machine to the public in New York City and gained a lot of attention. However, one day a mechanical engineer, Robert Fulton, went to see the perpetual motion machine of Redheffer.

Fulton noticed the uneven sound and speed of the machine. From his keen observation, he identified that a hidden hand-crank was the power source of the machine. When accused by Fulton, Redheffer insisted that the machine was really capable of perpetual motion.

Fulton offered a challenge to Redheffer. According to the challenge, Fulton said that he was quite confident that he could expose the hidden power source of the perpetual motion machine of Redheffer. However, in case Fulton failed to expose it, he was ready to bear all the cost of damages caused to the machine.

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Redheffer accepted the challenge mainly due to the pressure that came from the crowd of visitors. Immediately, Fulton started to remove some of the boards from a neighboring wall of the perpetual motion machine. This revealed a long, hidden cord made of catgut. The cord ran up to the upper floor.

Fulton went up the stairs, and there he saw an old man sitting and eating bread in one hand, and turning a hand-crank with the other hand. Redheffer used to give the poor old fellow some bread and water and forced him to keep turning the crank drive throughout the day.

The visitors who came to see the machine became furious, realizing that they had been cheated by Charles Redheffer. They destroyed the perpetual motion machine right on the spot out of anger. Redheffer, having no way out, fled New York City immediately.

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Later Appearances of Charles Redheffer

In 1816, it was said that Charles Redheffer had invented yet another machine. The intention behind building the machine was to demonstrate it to a group of people, including the Chief Justice and Mayor of Philadelphia. However, despite a number of meetings, Redheffer was not willing to demonstrate the machine to the group of men. Despite this, on the 11th of July, 1820, a patent was granted to Charles Redheffer by the U.S. Patent Office, for a device known as “machinery for the purpose of gaining power.”

While the laws of physics state that it is impossible to create perpetual motion machines, many other people have tried inventing them. Different inventors have different goals behind inventing the machine. However, none have been conclusively proven to be a reality.

Top Image: Redheffer was eventually exposed as a fraud. Source: Maya Kruchancova / Adobe Stock.

By Bipin Dimri

References

Mr Redheffer’s perpetual motion machine (2015). Available at: https://www.marc-yeats.com/mr-redheffers-perpetual-motion-machine-2015/

No. 438: REDHEFFER’S PMM-I. Available at: https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi438.htm

Perpetual Motion Machine Remains Elusive Prize. Available at: https://www.farmcollector.com/farm-life/perpetual-motion-zmlz19julzhur/